Most Interesting Therapy:Psychoanalytic

Why It Is Interesting:

I feel that psychoanalytic therapy founded by Sigmund Freud is the most interesting.  I think it is the most interesting because of all of the components of this therapy that are well known not only to those who study psychology but to anyone who has heard of psychology.  Most people know enough about Sigmund Freud to tell you he had something to do with psychology, sex, and while they may not know that they are the three systems of the personality most people have heard of the id, ego, and superego. 

Primary Goal:

Bring the unconscious into consciousness. 

How Freud's life/experiences contributed to development of the theory:

Freud studied medicine at the University of Vienna.  He then began working with Jean-Martin Charcot, a French neurologist, and developed a fascination with hysteria.  In studying hysteria Frued and his mentor, Dr. Josef Breuer, came to the conclusion that traumatic events in one's past contribute to their hysteria.  Freud and Breuer continued to study hysteria and learned that talking about past traumatic events helped reduce the symptoms of hysteria.  This was what started Freud's interest in psychology and lead to his development of psychoanalytic therapy.       

References

savagechickens.com "Ink Blot"



Family Systems Therapy

Founded By:

Alfred Adler (1870-1937)



Murray Bowen (1913-1990)

Other Founders: Virginia Satir, Carl Whitaker, Salvador Minuchin, Jay Haley, and Cloe Madanes

Key Concepts:

*Systemic therapists:
     *Explore the system for family process and rules, perhaps using a genogram
     *Invite the clients' family to therapy with them
     *Focus on the family relationships
     *Be concerned with transgenerational meanings, rules, cultural, and gender prespectives within
     the system, and even the community and larger systems affecting the family
     *Intervene in ways designed to help change the client's context
*Differentiation of self- Involves the psychological separation of intellect and emotion and independence of the self from others
*Structural family therapy-"Minuchin's central idea was that an individual's symptoms are best understood from the vantage point of interactional patterns, or sequences, within a family, and further, structural changes must occur in a family before an individual's symptoms can be reduced or eliminated" (Corey p. 440). 

Therapeutic Goals:

*"Specific goals are determined by the practitioner's orientation or by a collaborative process between family and therapist" (Corey p. 456).
*Interventions are used to enable the client and their family to change and reduce their distress.
*"Ultimately, every intervention a therapist makes is an expression of a value judgement" (Corey p. 456).

Techniques:

*"Personal characteristics such as respect for clients, compassion, empathy, and sensitivity are human qualities that influence the manner in which techniques are delivered" (Corey p. 456).
*"The central consideration is what is in the best interests of the family" (Corey p. 456).



Video of family systems therapy: http://youtu.be/mPW0UZd9gQ4

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

adler.ie "Alfred Adler"

ideastoaction.wordpress.com "Murray Bowen"

dss.mo.gov "Family Systems Therapy"

(2008, November 11). Family therapy. Video clip retrieved from http://www.youtube.com

Post Modern Therapy

Founded By:

Insoo Kim Berg (1935-2007)



Steve de Shazer (1940-2005)

Other Founders: Michael White and David Epston

Key Concepts:

*"Social constructionism is a psychological expression of this postmodern worldview; it values the client's reality without disputing whether it is accurate or rational" (Corey p. 397).
*"Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT) is a future-focused, goal-oriented therapeutic approach to brief therapy developed initially by Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg..." (Corey p. 400).
*SFBT differs from other therapies because it is interested in the present and the future but not the past.
*"Solution-focused brief therapy is grounded on the optimistic assumption that people are healthy and competent and have the ability to construct solutions that can enhance their lives" (Corey p. 400).
*Positive psychology concentrates on what is right and working instead of what is a problem or weakness.
*"The emphasis of SFBT is to focus on what is working in clients' lives, which stands in stark contrast to the traditional models of therapy that tend to be problem-focused" (Corey p. 401).
*SFBT explains how people change and how they can reach their goals.
*"Of all the social constructionists, Michael White and David Epston are best known for their use of narrative in therapy" (Corey p. 410).
*"Therapists are encouraged to establish a collaborative approach with a special interest in listening respectfully to clients' stories; to search for times in clients' lives when they were resourceful; to use questions as a way to engage clients and facilitate their exploration; to avoid diagnosing and labeling clients or accepting a totalizing description based on a problem; to assist clients in mapping the influence a problem has had on their lives; and to assist clients in separating themselves from the dominant stories they have internalized so that space can be opened for the creation of alternative life stories" (Corey p. 410).
*"We live our lives by stories we tell about ourselves and that others tell about us" (Corey p. 410).
*"All social constructionist theories emphasize listening to clients without judgement or blame, affirming and valuing them" (Corey p. 411).

Therapeutic Goals:

*"SFBT reflects some basic notions about change, about interaction, and about reaching goals" (Corey p. 403).
*Goals are unique to each client.
*Client expresses what they want from therapy and what concerns they want to explore.
*"Solution-focused therapists concentrate on small, realistic, achievable changes that can lead to additional positive outcomes" (Corey p. 403).
*Change viewing of a situation or frame of reference.
*Change the doing of the problematic situation.
*Tap into the client's strengths and resources. 
*"A general goal of narrative therapy is to invite people to describe their experience in new and fresh language" (Corey p. 412).

Techniques:

*Pretherapy change-Scheduled an appointment which initiates positive change.
*Exception questions-Client is directed to times when the problem did not exist or was not as intense; exceptions are times when the problem should have occurred in the client's life but somehow did not.
*Miracle question-If the problem was solved overnight what would happen? What would it look like?
*Scaling questions- Rate feelings, moods, etc. on scale for example 1-10.
*Formula First Session Task-Homework the client is given to complete between first and second therapy sessions.
*Therapist feedback to clients
*Terminating- "Once clients are able to construct a satisfactory solution, the therapeutic relationship can be terminated" (Corey p. 408).
*Questions and more questions- The questions asked in narrative therapy are circular or relational and seek to empower clients.
*Externalization and deconstruction- The person is not the problem the problem is the problem.
*"In the narrative approach, externalizing questions are followed by questions searching for unique outcomes" (Corey p. 416). 
*Constructing new stories goes along with the process of deconstruction.

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

solution-focused.ca "Insoo Kim Berg"

reischreisch.de "Steve de Shazer"

mediatheorymemphis.blogspot.com "Post Modern"

Feminist Therapy

Founded By:

Jean Baker Miller, MD (1928-2006)



Carolyn Zerbe Enns

Other Founders: Olivia M. Espin, PhD and Laura S. Brown, PhD

Key Concepts:

*"Liberal feminists focus on helping individual women overcome the limits and constraints of traditional gender-role socialization patterns" (Corey p. 364).
*"Cultural feminists believe oppression stems from society's devaluation of women's strengths, values, and roles" (Corey p. 365).
*"Radical feminists focus on the oppression of women that is embedded in patriarchy and seek to change society through activism and equalizing power" (Corey p. 365).
*"Social feminists share with radical feminists the goal of societal change. Their emphasis differs, however, in that they focus on multiple oppressions and believe solutions to society's problems must include considerations of class, race, sexual orientation, economics, nationality, and history" (Corey p. 365).
*"Postmodern feminists provide a model for critiquing other traditional and feminist approaches, addressing the issue of what constitutes reality and proposing multiple truths as opposed to a single truth" (Corey p. 366).
*"Global international feminists take a worldwide perspective and seek to understand the ways in which racism, sexism, economics, and classism affect women in different countries" (Corey p. 366).
*Androcentric- Uses male-oriented constructs to make conclusions about human nature.
*Gendercentric- Proposes two seperate paths of development for men and women
*Heterosexist- Views heterosexuality as normative and devalues homo or bisexuality
*Deterministic- Personality and behavior are fixed early in development
*Intrapsychic orientation- Atttributes behavior to internal causes, often blames the victim
*"Gender-fair approaches explain differences in the behavior of women and men in terms of socialization processes rather than on the basis of our 'innate' natures, thus avoiding stereotypes in social roles and interpersonal behavior" (Corey p. 367).
*Flexible-multicultural perspective- Uses strategies that apply equally to people regardless of age, race, gender, etc.
*Interactionist view- Specific concepts about thinking, feeling, and behaving that account for contextual and environmental factors.
*Life-span perspective- Human development is lifelong and does not occur only during early childhood.
*Relational-cultural theory- Role of relationships and connections in lives of women.
*Principles of Feminist Theory:
     -Personal is political
     -Commitment to social change
     -Female voices and ways of knowing are valued and experiences honored
     -Counseling relationship is egalitarian
     -Focus on strengths and reformulated definition of psychological distress
     -All types of oppression are recognized

Therapeutic Goals:

*Client becomes aware of thier own gender-role socialization process
*Client identifies their internalized messages and replaces them with more self-enhancing beliefs
*Client learns the negative effects on themselves from sexist and oprressive societal beliefs and practices
*Client acquires skills to change their environment
*Clients restructure institutions to rid them of discriminatory practices
*Clients develop a wide range of freely chosen behaviors
*Clients evaluate how social factors impact their lives
*Clients develop a sense of personal and social power
*Clients recognize the power of relationships and connections
*Clients trust their own experience and intuition

 

Techniques:

*Empowerment- Enables clients to see themselves as active agents on behalf of themselves.
*Self-disclosure- Used to equalize the client-therapist relationship.
*Gender-role analysis- Explores the impact of gender-role expectations on the client's well-being.
*Gender-role intervention- Therapist places concern in the context of society's role expectations for women.
*Power analysis- Range of methods aimed at clients gaining understanding of how unequal access to power influences their reality.
*Bibliotherapy- Self-help books
*Assertiveness training
*Reframing and relabeling- Reframing=shift from blaming victim; Relabeling=changes label or evaluation applied to behavioral characteristic
*Social action- Social activism
*Group work

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

harvardsquarelibrary.org "Jean Miller"

people.cornellcollege.edu "Carolyn Enns"

stbcedartown.org "Feminist"

djavanriversilva.wordpress.com "Fight Patriarchy"

Reality Therapy

Founded By:

William Glasser (b.1925)


Robert Wubbolding (b.1936)

Key Concepts:

*Reality therapy- Based on choice theory; "Reality therapy provides a delivery system for helping individuals take more effective control of their lives" (Corey p. 336). "Contemporary reality therapy fouses quickly on the unsatisfying relationship or the lack of a relationship, which is often the cause of clients' problems" (Corey p. 338).
*Choice theory- Explains why and how we function; "Choice theory posits that we are not born blank slates waiting to be externally motivated by forces in the world around us. Rather, we are born with five genetically encoded needs that drive us allof our lives: survival, or self-preservation; love and belonging; power, or inner control; freedom, or independence; and fun, or enjoyment" (Corey p. 336). 

*Quality world- The mental file of wants that we build at the core of our life.
*Picture album- The internal storage of wants and ways to satisfy those wants.
*Total behavior- All behavior is made up of acting, thinking, feeling, and physiology. 
*Reality therapy emphasizes choice and responsibility, rejects transference, keeps the therapy in the present, avoids focusing on symptoms, and challenges traditional views of mental illness.

Therapeutic Goals:

*Help clients connect or reconnect with people they want in their quality world.
*"Reality therapists teach clients how to engage in self-evaluation, which is done by raising the question, 'Is what you are choosing to do getting you what you want and need?'" (Corey p. 341).

Techniques:

*Reality therapy is best viewed as a cycle of counseling with two main components: 1. creating a counseling environment and 2. implementing specific procedures that lead to changes in behavior.
*"WDEP" system- W=wants, needs, and perceptions; D=direction and doing; E=self-evaluation; and P=planning. 
*Self-evaluation is the cornerstone of reality therapy.

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

strategiesforliving.com "William Glasser"

psychotherapy.net "Robert Wubbolding"

brentonrussell.com "William Glasser's Basic Needs"

cartoonstock.com "Reality Therapy"

Cognitive Behavior Therapy

Founded By:

Albert Ellis (1913-2007)



Aaron T. Beck (b.1921)



Judith S. Beck (b.1954)



Donald Meichenbaum (b.1940)

Key Concepts:

*Rational emotive behavior therapy- Developed by Albert Ellis; "The basic assumption of REBT is that people contribute to their own psychological problems, as well as to specific symptoms, by the rigid and extreme beliefs they hold about events and situations" (Corey p. 291).  People learn irrational beliefs during childhood and re-create them throughout their lives. 
 
*People are born with potential for both rational/straight thinking and irrational/crooked thinking.
*"People have predispositions for self-preservation, happiness, thinking and verbalizing, loving, communion with others, and growth and self-actualization. They also have propensities for self-destruction, avoidance of thought, procrastination, endless repetition of mistakes, superstition, intolerance, perfectionism and self-blame, and avoidance of actualizing growth potentials" (Corey p. 292). 
*A-B-C Framework- A=(Activating event) B=(Belief) C=(Emotional and behavioral consequence) D=(Disputing intervention) E=(Effect) and F=(New feeling).
*Cognitive restructuring- Teaches people how to replace irrational with rational beliefs.
*Cognitive therapy- "Beck developed cognitive therapy about the same time that Ellis was developing REBT, yet they appear to have created their approaches independently" (Corey p. 302); Cognitive therapy, rational emotive behavior therapy, and behavior therapy share alot of similarities "All of these therapies are active, directive, time-limited, present-centered, problem-oriented, collaborative, structured, and empirical" (Corey p. 302).
*Automatic thoughts- Thoughts triggered by certain stimuli that cause emotional responses.
*Cognitive distortions- Errors in reasoning that lead to faulty assumptions and misconceptions.
*Cognitive distortions:
     *Arbitrary inferences- Making conclusions without supporting evidence.
     *Selective abstraction- Forming conclusions on an isolated detail of an event.
     *Overgeneralization- Holding extreme beliefs based on a single incident and applying those
     beliefs to dissimilar events of settings.
     *Magnification and minimization- Perceiving a case or situation in a greater or lesser light.
     *Personalization- Client tends to relate external events to themself when their is no basis for this
     connection.
     *Labeling and mislabeling- Portraying identity on basis of imperfections and mistakes from past
     and allowing those to define true identity.
     *Dichotomous thinking- Categorizing experiences in either-or extremes.
*Cognitive behavior modification- "Another major alternative to rational emotive behavior therapy..." (Corey p. 310); developed by Donald Meichenbaum; combines elements of both behavior  and cognitive therapies.  
*"Meichenbaum has developed his approach by incorporating the constructivist narrative perspective (CNP), which focuses on the stories people tell about themselves and others regarding significant events in their lives" (Corey p. 315).

Therapeutic Goals:

*"... teaching clients how to separate the evaluation of their behaviors from the evaluation of themselves-their essence and their totality-and how to accept themselves in spite of their imperfections" (Corey p. 295).
*Clients minimize emotional disturbances and self-defeating behaviors.
*Clients acquire a workable life philosophy.
*Client achieves unconditional self-acceptance and unconditional other acceptance.
* Homework- Assignments are checked in later sessions; "...aimed at getting clients to carry out positive actions that induce emotional and attitudinal change" (Corey p. 296); clients learn to dispute self-defeating thinking by practicing new skills outside of therapy.

Techniques:

*Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy- "REBT generally starts with clients' disturbed feelings and intensely explores these feelings in connection with thoughts and behaviors" (Corey p. 297).
*Cognitive Methods:
     *Disputing irrational beliefs- Therapist actively disputes clients' irrational beliefs and teaches the
     client how to do this on their own.
     *Doing cognitive homework- Clients make lists of problems, look for their beliefs, and dispute
     their beliefs.
     *Bibliotherapy- Clients are encouraged to read self-help books.
     *Changing one's language- "REBT rests on the premise that imprecise language is one of the
     causes of distorted thinking processes"(Corey p. 299). 
     *Psychoeducational methods- Clients are introduced to educational materials that reveal how the
      therapy process works and why certain techniques are used. 
*Emotive Techniques:
     *Rational emotive imagery- Clients are asked to imagine one of the worst things that could happen
     to them. 
     *Using humor- Emotional disturbances come from being too serious so humor is used to put life
     in perspective. 
     *Role playing- Therapist interrupts to show clients what they telling themselves; clients rehearse
     their behaviors to bring their feelings to light. 
     *Shame-attacking exercises- Exercises that are aimed at teaching the client that most of their
     shameful feelings is just them attacking themselves. 
*Behavioral Techniques:
     *Operant conditioning
     *Self-management principles
     *Systematic desensitization
     *Relaxation techniques
     *Modeling
*Collaborative empiricism- Therapist attempts to collaborate with client in testing the validity of the client's cognitions. Uses a reflective questioning process.
*3 phase process of change in cognitive behavior modification-
      *Phase 1= Self-observation- Client learns to observe their own behavior.
      *Phase 2= Starting a new internal dialogue- Clients learn to notice their maladaptive behavior and
      see opportunities for adaptive behavior alternatives.
      *Phase 3= Learning new skills- Client learns to interrupt the downward spiral of thinking, feeling,
      and behaving and learns to cope. 
*Stress inoculation training- "Stress inoculation training consists of a combination of information giving, Socratic discovery-oriented inquiry, cognitive restructuring, problem solving, relaxation training, behavioral rehearsals, self-monitoring, self-instruction, self-reinforcement, and modifying environmental situations" (Corey p. 312).
*Relapse prevention- Procedures for dealing with inevitable setbacks; clients are taught to view them  as "learning opportunities" instead of "catastrophic failures".

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

eitrainingcompany.com "Albert Ellis"

anxietycounselingsolutions.com "Aaron Beck"

beckinstituteblog.org "Judith Beck"

nacbt.org "Donald Meichenbaum"

thecwcnj.com "REBT model"

Behavior Therapy

Founded By:

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)



Albert Bandura (b.1925)



 Arnold A. Lazarus (b. 1932)

 

 Key Concepts:

*Behavior therapy is based on the scientific method; "In short, behavioral concepts and procedures are stated explicitly, tested empirically within a conceptual framework, and revised continually" (Corey p. 251).
*Behavior is not limited to action that can be observed but is also the cognitions, images, beliefs, and emotions of the person. 
*Deals with the client's current problems and their influencing factors but does not look to the client's past for determinants of the current problems. Instead the therapist looks at current environmental events that maintain the client's problems. "Behavior therapy recognizes the importance of the individual, the individual's environment, and the interaction between teh person and the environment in facilitating change" (Corey p. 251).
*Clients are expected to take an active role and take actions to deal with their problems.  Clients do not just talk about their problems but are expected to "do" something to change their problems. 
*Behavior therapy assumes that change can occur without understanding the origin of the psychological problem. 
*"Assessment is an ongoing process of observation and self-monitoring that focuses on the current determinants of behavior, including identifying the problem and evaluating the change; assessment informs the treatment process" (Corey p. 251). The therapist also assesses the client's culture. The interventions are also assessed to determine if a change in behavior was a result of the interventions. 
*"Behavioral treatment interventions are individually tailored to specific problems experienced by the client" (Corey p. 252). Multiple techniques may be used to treat a client's problems. 

Therapeutic Goals:

*"The general goals of behavior therapy are to increase personal choice and to create new conditions for learning" (Corey p. 252).
*At the beginning of the therapy process the client sets specific treatment goals.
*"Although assessment and treatment occur together, a formal assessment takes place prior to treatment to determine behaviors that are targets of change" (Corey p. 252).  Assessment continues throughout the therapy process to determine if progress is being made toward the treatment goals.
*Functional assessment or behavioral analysis- "To identify the maintaining conditions by systematically gathering information about situational antecedents, the dimensions of the problem behavior, and the consequences of the problem" (Corey p. 252). This is also known as the ABC model. 

Techniques:

*Operant Conditioning
     *"Positive reinforcement involves the addition of something of value to the individual as a
     consequence of certain behavior" (Corey p. 256).
     *"Negative reinforcement involves the escape from or the avoidance of aversive (unpleasant)
     stimuli. The individual is motivated to exhibit a desired behavior to avoid the unpleasant
     condition" (Corey p. 256).
     *Extinction is "...withholding reinforcement from a previously reinforced response" (Corey p.
     256).
     *Punishment or aversive control- Refers to the consequences of a behavior resulting in that
     behavior decreasing.
     *Positive punishment- Aversive stimuli added after behavior to decrease the frequency of the
     behavior.
     *Negative punishment- Stimuli is removed after behavior to decrease the frequency of the
     behavior. 
*Progressive muscle relaxation- Client aims to achieve both muscle and mental relaxation.
*Systematic desensitization- "Clients imagine successively more anxiety-arousing situations at the same time that they engage in a behavior that competes with anxiety. Gradually, or systematically, clients become less sensitive (desensitized) to the anxiety-arousing situation" (Corey pp. 258-259).
*"Exposure therapies are designed to treat fears and other negative emotional responses by introducing clients, under carefully controlled conditions, to the situations that contributed to such problems" (Corey p. 260).
     *In vivo exposure refers to exposure to the actual event rather than just imagining the anxiety-
     evoking event.
     *Flooding refers to intense exposure for a prolonged amount of time whether the exposure is
     actual or imagined.
     *Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) refers to the process that involves
     assessment and preparation, imaginal flooding, and cognitive restructuring to treat individuals
     with traumatic memories.  Rapid rythmic eye movement as well as other bilateral stimulation
     is used to treat clients who have experience traumatic stress.  There is controversy over whether it
     is the eye movements themselves or the cognitive techniques that are used with the eye
     movements that are responsible for the change that is seen in clients being treated.   
*"Social skills training is a broad category that deals with an individual's ability to interact effectively with others in various social situations; it is used to help clients develop and achieve skills in interpersonal competence" (Corey p. 263).
     *Assertion training- Used to teach people how to be assertive in various social situations.  People
     have the right but are not required or obligated to express themselves.   
*Self-management programs and Self-directed behavior
     *"Self-management strategies include self-monitoring, self-reward, self-contracting, and stimulus
     control" (Corey p. 265). 
*Multimodal therapy- "The essence of Lazarus's multimodal approach is the premise that the complex personality of human beings can be divided into seven major areas of functioning: B= behavior; A= affective responses; S= sensations; I= images; C= cognitions; I= interpersonal relationships; and D= drugs, biological functions, nutrition, and exercise" (Corey pp. 266-267).

Behaviour	Stays in bed stays home - minimal contact with friends and family Do little	Specific behavioural goals Increase contact and time with others Activity scheduling
Affect	Depressed, sad Guilt feelings	Explore triggers and associated thoughts Encourage positive activity (mastery and pleasure)
Sensation	Tiredness	Relaxation Listening to inspiring music
Imagery	Poor self-image, recurring images of past events and possible future problems	Confidence & coping imagery
Cognition	Negative filter Self-critical thoughts	Challenge unhelpful thoughts and thinking styles Distancing & Refocus of attention
Interpersonal	Passive behaviour Avoids social contact	Assertiveness Increase social contact, social skills
Drugs / biology	Takes anti-depressants Uses alcohol to feel better sometimes No physical exercise	Monitor and reduce alcohol use Increase physical activity

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

revistaescola.abril.com.br "B.F. Skinner"

news.stanford.edu "Albert Bandura"

thelazarusinstitute.com "Arnold Lazarus"

get.gg/mmt.html "BASIC ID"

Gestalt Therapy

Founded By:

Fritz Perls (1893-1970)


Laura Perls (1905-1990)

Key Concepts:

*"Clients have to grow up, stand on their own two feet, and 'deal with their life problems themselves'" (Corey p. 213).
*Perls' had two personal agendas during therapy:
     1. Move the client toward self-support instead of environmental support.
     2. Help the client reintegrate the disowned parts of their personality.
*"The Gestalt theory of change posits that the more we work at becoming who or what we are not, the more we remain the same" (Corey p. 214).
*Paradoxical theory of change- Clients need to "be" in their current condition as much as possible instead of trying to become what they "should be."
*Holism-Gestalt therapists are interested in the whole person not in the different aspects of the client.
     Figure- Aspects of the client's experience that are most slient at any moment.
     Ground- Aspects of the clients's presentation taht are out of their awareness.
*Field theory- The organism must be seen in its environment or context as part of the constantly changing field.
*Figure-formation process- "The figure-formation process tracks how some aspect of the environmental field emerges from the background and becomes the focal point of the individual's attention and interest" (Corey p. 215).
*Organismic self-regulation- Equilibrium is disturbed by a need, sensation, or interest.
*Phenomenological inquiry- Paying attention to what is going on now.  
*Gestalt therapists ask "what" and "how" questions but rarely ask "why" questions. 
*Gestalt therapists encourage present tense dialogue. 
*Unfinished business- When figures from the past emerge but have not been resolved.  This leads to unexpressed feelings which create emotional debris and inhibits present-centered awareness.   
*Impasse- Stuck point; time when support is not available or the way of being does not work.
* Contact- Made by seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, and moving.
*Introjection- Tendency to uncritically accept others' beliefs and standards without making them congruent with ourselves.
*Projection- Opposite of introjection; we disown aspects of ourselves by assigning them to the environment.
*Retroflection- Turn back onto ourselves what we would like to do to others or what we would like for others to do to or for us (Corey p. 218).
*Deflection- Distraction or veering off, that creates difficulty in maintaining a sense of contact.
*Confluence- Blurring the differentiation between the self and the environment.

Therapeutic Goals:

*Client moves toward increased awareness of themself
*"Gradually assume ownership of their experience (as opposed to making others responsible for what they are thinking, feeling, and doing)" (Corey p. 219). 
*"Develop skills and acquire values that will allow them to satisfy their needs without violating the rights of others" (Corey p. 219).
*Client moves toward being more aware of all of their senses
*Client learns to take responsibility for their actions and the consequences of their actions.
*Client becomes able to both ask for help from others and give help to others.

Techniques:

*Methods are tailored to the clients needs and experiments are presented as invitations.
* Exercises- Ready-made techniques that are used to make something happen in therapy or achieve a goal. "They can be catalysts for individual work or for promoting interaction among members of a therapy group" (Corey p. 224).
*Experiments- Emerge from the dialogue between the therapist and client; assist the client in active self-exploration.
*Confrontation is sometimes used in Gestalt therapy but it does not have to be a harsh attack.  It can be done in a way where clients are cooperative when they are invited to look at their behaviors and attitudes.
*Internal dialogue exercise- "One goal of Gestalt therapy is to bring about integrated functioning and acceptance of aspects of one's personality that have been disowned and denied" (Corey p. 228).
*Empty-chair technique- The client sits in one chair and takes on the role of the top dog and then they sit in the other chair and take on the role of the underdog. 
*Making the rounds- Asking one person in a group to go to each of the others in the group and interact with them in some way. 
*Reversal exercise- The therapist asks the client to play the opposite of their typical style or role; hopefully they will learn to recognize and accept the "negative" as well as the "positive" side.
*Rehearsal exercise- Client shares out loud with the therapist their rehearsals.
*Exaggeration exercise- Clients become more aware of the signals and cues they are sending; the client repeatedly exaggerates the movement or gesture to intensify the feeling attached to the behavior and hopefully make its meaning clearer. 
*Staying with the feeling- Clients wish to escape fearful and unpleasant feelings; the therapist encourages the client to stay with the feeling and go deeper into it. 
*Dream work- Bring dreams back to life; relive them as though they are happening now.  Gestalt therapy does not interpret or analyze the dreams; it allows the client to become more aware of their range of feelings. 

 Video clip of Gestalt therapy: http://youtu.be/ZbOAdMdMLdI

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

freud-sigmund.com "Fritz Perls"

fritzperls.com "Laura Perls"

(2007, October 27). Gestalt Therapy. Video clip retrieved from http://www.youtube.com

Person-Centered Therapy

Founded By:

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Key Concepts:

*"Rogers firmly maintained that people are trustworthy, resourceful, capable of self-understanding and self-direction, able to make constructive changes, and able to live effective and productive lives" (Corey p.178).
*Rogers felt that a therapist must be genuine or real, accepting and caring, and have an ability to grasp or understand the world of their clients in order to help their clients move forward and reach their full potential.

*Actualizing tendency- Striving for realization and fulfillment. 
*The therapist is not the authority and does not know best; the client should be self-aware and self-direct their change. 
*Clients are guided toward being able to successfully deal with obstacles blocking their growth.

Therapeutic Goals:

*The client becomes more independent and integrated. 
*The client realizes ways of being more authentic.  The client is more open to experience, trusts themself, can internally evaluate themself, and is willing to continue growing. 
*The therapist does not set or choose goals for the therapy the client chooses their own goals. 
*The therapist should be empathic and communicate unconditional positive regard toward the client.
*Accurate empathic understanding- The ability of the therapist to experience the clients' feelings as if they are their own without getting caught up in the feelings.  

Techniques:

*"Rogers's original emphasis was on grasping the world of the client and reflecting this understanding" (Corey p. 184). 
*Later Rogers emphasized the therapist and client relationship.  The quality of this relationship is what promotes the client's growth. 
*Techniques may be suggested when they help improve the therapist and client relationship.
*Presence- The therapist is present and attentive to the client.
*Immediacy- Addressing what is going on between the therapist and client.

Video clip of person-centered therapy: http://youtu.be/Ew8CAr1v48M

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

person-centered.org "Carl Rogers"

neetlearners.blogspot.com "Rogers Person-centered Approach"

(2006, October 22). Person Centred Therapy. Video clip retrieved from http://www.youtube.com

Existential Therapy

Founded by:

Existential therapy was not founded by one certain person or group of people.  However, Viktor Frankl, Rollo May, and Irvin Yalom are some of the key figures of existential therapy. 



Viktor Frankl (1905-1997)



Rollo May (1909-1994)




Irvin Yalom (b.1931-)

Key Concepts:

*"The existential movement stands for respect for the person, for exploring new aspects of human behavior, and for divergent methods of understanding people" (Corey p. 145).   
*Existential tradition- Recognizes limits and opportunities of human life. We have both limitations and freedom. 
*Proposition 1: The Capacity for Self-Awareness
          *"Freedom, choice, and responsibility constitute the foundation of self-awareness" (Corey       
                  p.146).
          *We have a limited amount of time.
          *We can choose between action and inaction.
          *We help creact our destiny by choosing our action or inaction.
          *We increase our responsibility for the consequences of our actions or inactions as we
          become more aware of our choices.
          *We may experience loneliness, a sense of meaninglessness, emptiness, etc.
          *We are alone but can relate to others.
*Proposition 2: Freedom and Responsibility
          *"A central existential concept is that although we long for freedom, we often try to escape 
          from our freedom by defining ourselves as a fixed or static entity" (Corey p. 147).
          *Inauthenticity- Unawareness of responsibility for own life and assumes external forces are in
          control. 
          *Freedom- We are responsible for our lives and actions.
          *Existential guilt- Awareness of evading a commitment or choosing not to make a choice.
          *Authenticity- Live by what we view is a valuable exsistence for ourselves.
          *Frankl postulates that "We are not free from conditions, but we are free to take a stand against
          these restrictions" (Corey p. 148).
*Proposition 3: Striving for Identity and Relationship to Others
          *We want to be unique but also be able to relate to others and nature.
          *We move forward even though we are aware of situations we will face in the future.
          *Aloneness is part of being human but we can gain strength from being alone. 
          *We want to experience relatedness.  We want to feel important to others have others be
          important to us. 
          *We struggle with our identity.  We do not want to be alone and therefore we sometimes let
          others design our life for us and stay trapped in an identity from our childhood. 
*Proposition 4: The Search for Meaning
          *We struggle with feeling significant and that we have purpose
          *People may discard their old traditional/imposed values and not look for any to replace them. 
          *People may feel their world has no meaning and it is pointless to struggle through it or in  
          some cases to live.
          *"Meaninglessness in life can lead to emptiness and hollowness, or a condition that Frankl calls
          the existential vacuum" (Corey p. 152). 
          * In logotherapy therapist point out that clients can create meaning for their lives even in
          struggles and suffering.
          *Meaning is not something that can be searched for and found it is achieved through
          engagement. 
*Proposition 5: Anxiety as a Condition of Living
          *Existential anxiety- Unavoidable anxiety that results from facing things such as death,
          freedom, meaninglessness, etc.  
          *Normal anxiety- Appropriate response to the situation.  We cannot survive without some
          anxiety and it is not a therapeutic goal to eliminate normal anxiety.
          *Neurotic anxiety- Anxiety that is out of proportion to the situation.  Neurotic anxiety is
          immobilizing.  In order to be psychologically healthy one needs to experience little neurotic
          anxiety but accepting existential anxiety. 
*Proposition 6: Awareness of Death and Nonbeing
          *Death is not viewed as a negative but instead is an inevitable human condition that adds
          significance to life and living.
          *Death provides the opportunity for us to appreciate the present moment. 

Therapeutic Goals:

*The main therapeutic goal is increased self-awareness.  Teaching clients to look at what they already know about themselves.
*Lead clients to see they are not living authentic lives and teach them to make choices that will lead them to their fullest potential. 
*Lead clients to become more authentic and recognize when they are self-deceiving.
*Help clients face anxiety and create a meaningful life. 
*Restricted existence- A limited awareness of self and clients experiencing this will be vague about their problems during therapy.

Techniques:

*Existential therapy is not technique oriented and incorporates many techniques from other models.
*Prefer description, understanding and exploration of subjective reality instead of diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis. 
*Uses three phases:
           *Initial phase- Assist client in identifying and clarifying thier view of the world. 
           *Second phase- Assist client in examining their values.
           *Final phase- Assist client in taking what they have learned and practicing it or putting it into
           action. 



Video clip about existential therapy http://youtu.be/gathih6EgwM

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

(2010, July 27). Existential Psychotherapy. Video clip retrieved from http://www.youtube.com

rightwords.ed "Viktor Frankl"

quotezuki.com "Rollo May"

cafegradiva.ro "Irvin Yalom"

Adlerian Therapy

Founded By:

Alfred Adler (1870-1937)

Key Concepts:

*View of human nature: "According to Adler, humans are motivated primarily by social relatedness rather than by sexural urges; behavior is purposeful and goal-directed; and consciousness, more than unconsciousness, is the focuse of therapy" (Corey p.103).
* Inferiority feelings motivate us and inspire creativity.  Behavior can be influenced it is not merely at the mercy of heredity and the environment.
* Subjective perception of reality: Phenomenological- Therapists try to view things from the client's persepective.
*Unity and patterns of personality: Adler used the term individual psychology.  He stressed viewing the person as a whole indivisible person. Holistic concept says that a client cannot be evaluated in terms of parts or bits and pieces but must be viewed in their entirety. 
*Behavior is purposeful and goal oriented:  Fictional finalism is a life goal that guides a person's behavior. Adler used the terms "guiding self-ideal" and "goal of perfection."
*Social interest-Having equal concern for others that one has for themself.  This involves cooperating and contributing in one's community. 
*Community feeling-The feeling of being connected to others.
*Adlerians pay attention to sibling relationships and birth order.  "Birth order is not a deterministic concept but does increase an individual's probability of having a certain set of experiences" (Corey p.108).  More attention is paid to one's feelings of where they fit into their family than to the actual birth sequence.  (Examples to reference are oldest child, second child, middle child, youngest child, and only child).

Therapeutic Goals:

*"...Reeducation or reorientation of the client toward the useful side of life" (Corey p.109). 
*Client develops a sense of belonging in terms of community feeling and social interest.
*Therapist provides encouragement and guidance and increases the client's self awareness.

Techniques:

*Establish relationship between client and therapist.
*Perform holistic assessment of the client
*Encourage self-understanding
*Reeducate the clien on making new choices

Example of an Adlerian therapy session: http://www.youtube.com/embed/I32ehCnAcVo

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

 (2011, July 14). Classical Adlerian brief therapy. Video clip retrieved from http://www.youtube.com

psychology.about.com "Alfred Adler."

Psychoanalytic Therapy

Founded By:

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Key Concepts:

*View of human nature: "According to Freud, our behavior is determined by irrational forces, unconcious motivations, and biological and instinctual drives..." (Corey p.65).
*Personality is comprised of three systems: the id, the ego, and the superego.
                         *Id- Ruled by the pleasure principle
                         *Ego- Ruled by the reality principle
                         *Superego- Mainly concerned with good vs. bad and right vs. wrong strives for 
                           perfection not pleasure

*Consciousness and the Unconscious: The largest part of the mind is the unconscious which stores memories and repressed materials. Neurotic symptoms and behaviors are rooted in the unconscious. 
*Three kinds of anxiety: reality, neurotic, and moral
                           *Reality- Fear of danger from world; external
                           *Neurotic- Fear instincts will get out of hand; internal
                           *Moral- Fear of own conscience; internal
*Ego-defense mechanisms: Way of coping with anxiety and prevent overwhelming
                           *Examples are repression, denial, projection, etc.

*Development of Personality: Frued's psychosexual and Erik Erikson's psychosocial stages of development from birth to adulthood. 

Goals of Therapy:

*Make the unconcious conscious
*Strengthen the ego which results in changing the individual's personality
*Analyze past experiences to gain self-understanding

Techniques:

*Maintain analytic framework:
                 *Therapist maintains relative anonymity
                 *Maintains neutrality and objectivity
                 *Consistent meetings
                 *Begin and end sessions on time
                 *Clarity on fees
                 *Therapist avoids giving advice and imposing their values
*Free association- Client encouraged to say whatever comes to mind
*Interpretation-Therapist explains the meaning of behavior
*Dream analysis:
              *Latent content- Hidden, symbolic, and unconscious contains sexual and aggresive impulses
              *Manifest content- More acceptable and less threatening content
*Analysis and interpretation of resistance- Anything working against the progress of the therapy
*Analysis and interpretation of transference- Past relationships distort the present with the therapist

References

Corey, G. (2013). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.

cca1103lumofrog.wordpress.com "Freud's Theory of the Personality." 

try-therapy.com "Development of Personality."